Language Learning Strategies: An Overview for L2 Teachers
Michael Lessard-Clouston
z95014 [at] kgupyr.kwansei.ac.jp
Kwansei Gakuin University (Nishinomiya, Japan)First published in Essays in Languages and Literatures, 8, at Kwansei Gakuin University, December 1997.
This article provides an overview of language learning
strategies (LLS) for second and foreign language (L2/FL) teachers. To do
so it outlines the background of LLS and LLS training, discusses a
three step approach teachers may follow in using LLS in their classes,
and summarises key reflections and questions for future research on this
aspect of L2/FL education. It also lists helpful contacts and internet
sites where readers may access up-to-date information on LLS teaching
and research.
Introduction
Within the field of education over the last few
decades a gradual but significant shift has taken place, resulting in
less emphasis on teachers and teaching and greater stress on learners
and learning. This change has been reflected in various ways in language
education and applied linguistics, ranging from the Northeast
Conference (1990) entitled "Shifting the Instructional Focus to the
Learner" and annual "Learners' Conferences" held in conjuction with the
TESL Canada convention since 1991, to key works on "the learner-centred
curriculum" (Nunan, 1988, 1995) and "learner-centredness as language
education" (Tudor, 1996).This article provides an overview of key
issues concerning one consequence of the above shift: the focus on and
use of language learning strategies (LLS) in second and foreign language
(L2/FL) learning and teaching. In doing so, the first section outlines
some background on LLS and summarises key points from the LLS
literature. The second section considers some practical issues related
to using LLS in the classroom, outlining a three step approach to
implementing LLS training in normal L2/FL courses. The third section
then briefly discusses some important issues and questions for further
LLS research. In the fourth section the article ends by noting a number
of contacts readers may use to locate and receive up-to-date information
on LLS teaching and research in this widely developing area in L2/FL
education.
1. BACKGROUND
Learning Strategies
In a helpful survey article, Weinstein and
Mayer (1986) defined learning strategies (LS) broadly as "behaviours and
thoughts that a learner engages in during learning" which are "intended
to influence the learner's encoding process" (p. 315). Later Mayer
(1988) more specifically defined LS as "behaviours of a learner that are
intended to influence how the learner processes information" (p. 11).
These early definitions from the educational literature reflect the
roots of LS in cognitive science, with its essential assumptions that
human beings process information and that learning involves such
information processing. Clearly, LS are involved in all learning,
regardless of the content and context. LS are thus used in learning and
teaching math, science, history, languages and other subjects, both in
classroom settings and more informal learning environments. For insight
into the literature on LS outside of language education, the works of
Dansereau (1985) and Weinstein, Goetz and Alexander (1988) are key, and
one recent LS study of note is that of Fuchs, Fuchs, Mathes and Simmons
(1997). In the rest of this paper, the focus will specifically be on
language LS in L2/FL learning.
Language Learning Strategies Defined
Within L2/FL education,
a number of definitions of LLS have been used by key figures in the
field. Early on, Tarone (1983) defined a LS as "an attempt to develop
linguistic and sociolinguistic competence in the target language -- to
incoporate these into one's interlanguage competence" (p. 67). Rubin
(1987) later wrote that LS "are strategies which contribute to the
development of the language system which the learner constructs and
affect learning directly" (p. 22). In their seminal study, O'Malley and
Chamot (1990) defined LS as "the special thoughts or behaviours that
individuals use to help them comprehend, learn, or retain new
information" (p. 1). Finally, building on work in her book for teachers
(Oxford, 1990a), Oxford (1992/1993) provides specific examples of LLS
(i.e., "In learning ESL, Trang watches U.S. TV soap operas, guessing the
meaning of new expressions and predicting what will come next") and
this helpful definition:
...language learning strageties --
specific actions, behaviours, steps, or techniques that students (often
intentionally) use to improve their progress in developing L2 skills.
These strageties can facilitate the internalization, storage, retrieval,
or use of the new language. Strategies are tools for the self-directed
involvement necessary for developing communicative ability. (Oxford,
1992/1993, p. 18)
From these definitions, a change over
time may be noted: from the early focus on the product of LSS
(linguistic or sociolinguistic competence), there is now a greater
emphasis on the processes and the characteristics of LLS. At the same
time, we should note that LLS are distinct from learning styles, which
refer more broadly to a learner's "natural, habitual, and preferred
way(s) of absorbing, processing, and retaining new information and
skills" (Reid, 1995, p. viii), though there appears to be an obvious
relationship between one's language learning style and his or her usual
or preferred language learning strategies.
What are the Characteristics of LLS?
Although the
terminology is not always uniform, with some writers using the terms
"learner strategies" (Wendin & Rubin, 1987), others "learning
strategies" (O'Malley & Chamot, 1990; Chamot & O'Malley, 1994),
and still others "language learning strategies" (Oxford, 1990a, 1996),
there are a number of basic characteristics in the generally accepted
view of LLS. First, LLS are learner generated; they are steps taken by
language learners. Second, LLS enhance language learning and help
develop language competence, as reflected in the learner's skills in
listening, speaking, reading, or writing the L2 or FL. Third, LLS may be
visible (behaviours, steps, techniques, etc.) or unseen (thoughts,
mental processes). Fourth, LLS involve information and memory
(vocabulary knowledge, grammar rules, etc.).Reading the LLS
literature, it is clear that a number of further aspects of LLS are less
uniformly accepted. When discussing LLS, Oxford (1990a) and others such
as Wenden and Rubin (1987) note a desire for control and autonomy of
learning on the part of the learner through LLS. Cohen (1990) insists
that only conscious strategies are LLS, and that there must be a choice
involved on the part of the learner. Transfer of a strategy from one
language or language skill to another is a related goal of LLS, as
Pearson (1988) and Skehan (1989) have discussed. In her teacher-oriented
text, Oxford summarises her view of LLS by listing twelve key features.
In addition to the characteristics noted above, she states that LLS:
- allow learners to become more self-directed
- expand the role of language teachers
- are problem-oriented
- involve many aspects, not just the cognitive
- can be taught
- are flexible
- are influenced by a variety of factors.
(Oxford, 1990a, p. 9)
Beyond this brief outline of LLS characterisitics, a helpful review of
the LLS research and some of the implications of LLS training for second
language acquisition may be found in Gu (1996).
Why are LLS Important for L2/FL Learning and Teaching?
Within
'communicative' approaches to language teaching a key goal is for the
learner to develop communicative competence in the target L2/FL, and LLS
can help students in doing so. After Canale and Swain's (1980)
influencial article recognised the importance of communication
strategies as a key aspect of strategic (and thus communicative)
competence, a number of works appeared about communication strategies in
L2/FL teaching2. An important distinction exists, however, between
communication and language learning strategies. Communication strategies
are used by speakers intentionally and consciously in order to cope
with difficulties in communicating in a L2/FL (Bialystok, 1990). The
term LLS is used more generally for all strategies that L2/FL learners
use in learning the target language, and communication strategies are
therefore just one type of LLS. For all L2 teachers who aim to help
develop their students' communicative competence and language learning,
then, an understanding of LLS is crucial. As Oxford (1990a) puts it, LLS
"...are especially important for language learning because they are
tools for active, self-directed involvement, which is essential for
developing communicative competence" (p. 1).In addition to developing
students' communicative competence, LLS are important because research
suggests that training students to use LLS can help them become better
language learners. Early research on 'good language learners' by Naiman,
Frohlich, Stern, and Todesco (1978, 1996), Rubin (1975), and Stern
(1975) suggested a number of positive strategies that such students
employ, ranging from using an active task approach in and monitoring
one's L2/FL performance to listening to the radio in the L2/FL and
speaking with native speakers. A study by O'Malley and Chamot (1990)
also suggests that effective L2/FL learners are aware of the LLS they
use and why they use them. Graham's (1997) work in French further
indicates that L2/FL teachers can help students understand good LLS and
should train them to develop and use them.
A caution must also be
noted though, because, as Skehan (1989) states, "there is always the
possibility that the 'good' language learning strategies...are also used
by bad language learners, but other reasons cause them to be
unsuccessful" (p. 76). In fact Vann and Abraham (1990) found evidence
that suggests that both 'good' and 'unsuccessful' language learners can
be active users of similar LLS, though it is important that they also
discovered that their unsuccessful learners "apparently...lacked...what
are often called metacognitive strategies...which would enable them to
assess the task and bring to bear the necessary strategies for its
completion" (p. 192). It appears, then, that a number and range of LLS
are important if L2/FL teachers are to assist students both in learning
the L2/FL and in becoming good language learners.
What Kinds of LLS Are There?
There are literally hundreds of
different, yet often interrelated, LLS. As Oxford has developed a
fairly detailed list of LLS in her taxonomy, it is useful to summarise
it briefly here. First, Oxford (1990b) distinguishes between direct LLS,
"which directly involve the subject matter", i.e. the L2 or FL, and
indirect LLS, which "do not directly involve the subject matter itself,
but are essential to language learning nonetheless" (p. 71). Second,
each of these broad kinds of LLS is further divided into LLS groups.
Oxford outlines three main types of direct LLS, for example. Memory
strategies "aid in entering information into long-term memory and
retrieving information when needed for communication". Cognitive LLS
"are used for forming and revising internal mental models and receiving
and producing messages in the target language". Compensation strategies
"are needed to overcome any gaps in knowledge of the language" (Oxford,
1990b, p. 71). Oxford (1990a, 1990b) also describes three types of
indirect LLS. Metacognitive strageties "help learners exercise
'executive control' through planning, arranging, focusing, and
evaluating their own learning". Affective LLS "enable learners to
control feelings, motivations, and attitudes related to language
learning". Finally, social strategies "facilitate interaction with
others, often in a discourse situation" (Oxford, 1990b, p. 71).A more
detailed overview of these six main types of LLS is found in Oxford
(1990a, pp. 18-21), where they are further divided into 19 strategy
groups and 62 subsets. Here, by way of example, we will briefly consider
the social LLS that Oxford lists under indirect strategies. Three types
of social LLS are noted in Oxford (1990a): asking questions,
co-operating with others, and empathising with others (p. 21). General
examples of LLS given in each of these categories are as follows:
Asking questions
- Asking for clarification or verification
- Asking for correction
Co-operating with others
- Co-operating with peers
- Co-operating with proficient users of the new language
Empathising with others
- Developing cultural understanding
- Becoming aware of others' thoughts and feelings (Oxford, 1990a, p. 21)
Although these examples are still rather vague, experienced L2/FL
teachers may easily think of specific LLS for each of these categories.
In asking questions, for example, students might ask something specific
like "Do you mean...?" or "Did you say that...?" in order to clarify or
verify what they think they have heard or understood. While at first
glance this appears to be a relatively straightforward LLS, in this
writer's experience it is one that many EFL students in Japan, for
example, are either unaware of or somewhat hesitant to employ.What is
important to note here is the way LLS are interconnected, both direct
and indirect, and the support they can provide one to the other (see
Oxford, 1990a, pp. 14-16). In the above illustration of social LLS, for
example, a student might ask the questions above of his or her peers,
thereby 'co-operating with others', and in response to the answer he or
she receives the student might develop some aspect of L2/FL cultural
understanding or become more aware of the feelings or thoughts of fellow
students, the teacher, or those in the L2/FL culture. What is learned
from this experience might then be supported when the same student uses a
direct, cognitive strategy such as 'practising' to repeat what he or
she has learned or to integrate what was learned into a natural
conversation with someone in the target L2/FL. In this case, the way LLS
may be inter-connected becomes very clear.
2. USING LLS IN THE CLASSROOM
With
the above background on LLS and some of the related literature, this
section provides an overview of how LLS and LLS training have been or
may be used in the classroom, and briefly describes a three step
approach to implementing LLS training in the L2/FL classroom.
Contexts and Classes for LLS Training
LLS and LLS training
may be integrated into a variety of classes for L2/FL students. One type
of course that appears to be becoming more popular, especially in
intensive English programmes, is one focusing on the language learning
process itself. In this case, texts such as Ellis and Sinclair's (1989)
Learning to Learn English: A Course in Learner Training or Rubin and
Thompson's (1994) How to Be a More Successful Language Learner might be
used in order to help L2/FL learners understand the language learning
process, the nature of language and communication, what language
learning resources are available to them, and what specific LLS they
might use in order to improve their own vocabulary use, grammar
knowledge, and L2/FL skills in reading, writing, listening, and
speaking. Perhaps more common are integrated L2/FL courses where these
four skills are taught in tandem, and in these courses those books might
be considered as supplementary texts to help learners focus on the LLS
that can help them learn L2/FL skills and the LLS they need to acquire
them. In this writer's experience, still more common is the basic L2/FL
listening, speaking, reading, or writing course where LLS training can
enhance and complement the L2/FL teaching and learning. Whatever type of
class you may be focusing on at this point, the three step approach to
implementing LLS training in the classroom outlined below should prove
useful.
Step 1: Study Your Teaching Context
At first, it is crucial
for teachers to study their teaching context, paying special attention
to their students, their materials, and their own teaching. If you are
going to train your students in using LLS, it is crucial to know
something about these individuals, their interests, motivations,
learning styles, etc. By observing their behaviour in class, for
example, you will be able to see what LLS they already appear to be
using. Do they often ask for clarification, verification, or correction,
as discussed briefly above? Do they co-operate with their peers or seem
to have much contact outside of class with proficient L2/FL users?
Beyond observation, however, one can prepare a short questionnaire that
students can fill in at the beginning of a course, describing themselves
and their language learning. Sharkey (1994/1995), for instance, asks
students to complete statements such as "In this class I want
to/will/won't....", "My favourite/least favourite kinds of class
activities are...", "I am studying English because...", etc. (Sharkey,
1994/1995, p. 19). Talking to students informally before or after class,
or more formally interviewing select students about these topics can
also provide a lot of information about one's students, their goals,
motivations, and LLS, and their understanding of the particular course
being taught.Beyond the students, however, one's teaching materials
are also important in considering LLS and LLS training. Textbooks, for
example, should be analysed to see whether they already include LLS or
LLS training. Scarcella and Oxford's (1992) Tapestry textbook series,
for example, incorporates "learning strategy" boxes which highlight LLS
and encourage students to use them in L2/FL tasks or skills. One example
from a conversation text in the series states: "Managing Your Learning:
Working with other language learners improves your listening and
speaking skills" (Earle-Carlin & Proctor, 1996, p. 8). An EFL
writing text I use has brief sections on making one's referents clear,
outlining, and choosing the right vocabulary, all of which may be
modelled and used in LLS training in my composition course. Audiotapes,
videotapes, hand-outs, and other materials for the course at hand should
also be examined for LLS or for specific ways that LLS training might
be implemented in using them. Perhaps teachers will be surprised to find
many LLS incorporated into their materials, with more possibilities
than they had imagined. If not, they might look for new texts or other
teaching materials that do provide such opportunities.
Last, but
certainly not least, teachers need to study their own teaching methods
and overall classroom style. One way to do so is to consider your lesson
plans. Do they incorporate various ways that students can learn the
language you are modelling, practising or presenting, in order to appeal
to a variety of learning styles and strategies? Does your teaching
allow learners to approach the task at hand in a variety of ways? Is
your LLS training implicit, explicit, or both? By audiotaping or
videotaping one's classroom teaching an instructor may objectively
consider just what was actually taught and modelled, and how students
responded and appeared to learn. Is your class learner-centred? Do you
allow students to work on their own and learn from one another? As you
circulate in class, are you encouraging questions, or posing ones
relevant to the learners with whom you interact? Whether formally in
action research or simply for informal reflection, teachers who study
their students, their materials, and their own teaching will be better
prepared to focus on LLS and LLS training within their specific teaching
context.
Step 2: Focus on LLS in Your Teaching
After you have studied
your teaching context, begin to focus on specific LLS in your regular
teaching that are relevant to your learners, your materials, and your
own teaching style. If you have found 10 different LLS for writing
explicitly used in your text, for example, you could highlight these as
you go through the course, giving students clear examples, modelling how
such LLS may be used in learning to write or in writing, and filling in
the gaps with other LLS for writing that are neglected in the text but
would be especially relevant for your learners.If you tend to be
teacher-centred in your approach to teaching, you might use a specific
number of tasks appropriate for your context from the collection by
Gardner and Miller (1996) in order to provide students with
opportunities to use and develop their LLS and to encourage more
independent language learning both in class and in out-of-class
activities for your course. As Graham (1997) declares, LLS training
"needs to be integrated into students' regular classes if they are going
to appreciate their relevance for language learning tasks; students
need to constantly monitor and evaluate the strategies they develop and
use; and they need to be aware of the nature, function and importance of
such strategies" (p. 169). Whether it is a specific conversation,
reading, writing, or other class, an organised and informed focus on LLS
and LLS training will help students learn and provide more
opportunities for them to take responsibility for their learning3.
Step 3: Reflect and Encourage Learner Reflection
Much of
what I have suggested in this section requires teacher reflection,
echoing a current trend in pedagogy and the literature in L2/FL
education (see, for example, Freeman & Richards, 1996, and Richards
& Lockhart, 1994). However, in implementing LLS and LLS training in
the L2/FL classroom, purposeful teacher reflection and encouraging
learner reflection form a necessary third step. On a basic level, it is
useful for teachers to reflect on their own positive and negative
experiences in L2/FL learning. As Graham suggests, "those teachers who
have thought carefully about how they learned a language, about which
strategies are most appropriate for which tasks, are more likely to be
successful in developing 'strategic competence' in their students" (p.
170). Beyond contemplating one's own language learning, it is also
crucial to reflect on one's LLS training and teaching in the classroom.
After each class, for example, one might ponder the effectiveness of the
lesson and the role of LLS and LLS training within it. Do students seem
to have grasped the point? Did they use the LLS that was modelled in
the task they were to perform? What improvements for future lessons of
this type or on this topic might be gleaned from students' behaviour? An
informal log of such reflections and one's personal assessment of the
class, either in a notebook or on the actual lesson plans, might be used
later to reflect on LLS training in the course as a whole after its
completion. In my experience I have found, like Offner (1997), that
rather than limiting my perspective to specific LLS such reflection
helps me to see the big picture and focus on "teaching how to learn"
within my L2/FL classes.In addition to the teacher's own reflections,
it is essential to encourage learner reflection, both during and after
the LLS training in the class or course. In an interesting action
research study involving "guided reflection" Nunan (1996) did this by
asking his students to keep a journal in which they completed the
following sentences: This week I studied..., I learned..., I used my
English in these places..., I spoke English with these people..., I made
these mistakes..., My difficulties are..., I would like to know..., I
would like help with..., My learning and practising plans for the next
week are... (Nunan, 1996, p. 36). Sharkey (1994/1995) asked her learners
to complete simple self- evaluation forms at various points during
their course. Matsumoto (1996) used student diaries, questionnaires, and
interviews to carry out her research and help her students reflect on
their LLS and language learning. Pickard (1996) also used questionnaires
and follow-up interviews in helping students reflect on their out-of-
class LLS. In a writing class, Santos (1997) has used portfolios to
encourage learner reflection. These are just a few examples from the
current literature of various ways to encourage learner reflection on
language learning. As Graham declares, "For learners, a vital component
of self-directed learning lies in the on-going evaluation of the methods
they have employed on tasks and of their achievements within
the...programme" (p. 170). Whatever the context or method, it is
important for L2/FL learners to have the chance to reflect on their
language learning and LLS use.
An Example of LLS Training
Let me give one example of
implementing LLS training within a normal L2/FL class from my experience
in teaching a TOEFL preparation course in Canada. After studying my
teaching context by considering my part-time, evening college students
(most of whom were working) and their LLS, the course textbook and other
materials, and my own teaching, I became convinced that I should not
only introduce LLS but also teach them and encourage learners to reflect
on them and their own learning. To make this LLS training specific and
relevant to these ESL students, I gave a mini-lecture early in the
course on the importance of vocabulary for the TOEFL and learning and
using English, and then focused on specific vocabulary learning
strategies (VLS) by highlighting them whenever they were relevant to
class activities. In practising listening for the TOEFL, for example,
there were exercises on multi-definition words, and after finishing the
activity I introduced ways students could expand their vocabulary
knowledge by learning new meanings for multi-definition words they
already know. I then talked with students about ways to record such
words and their meanings on vocabulary cards or in a special notebook,
in order for them to reinforce and review such words and meanings they
had learned.In order to encourage learner reflection, later in the
course I used a questionnaire asking students about their vocabulary
learning and VLS in and outside of class, and the following week gave
them a generic but individualised vocabulary knowledge test where
students provided the meaning, part of speech, and an example sentence
for up to 10 words each person said he or she had 'learned'. I marked
these and handed them back to students the next week, summarising the
class results overall and sparking interesting class discussion. For a
more detailed description of this classroom activity and a copy of the
questionnaire and test, see Lessard-Clouston (1994). For more
information on the research that I carried out in conjunction with this
activity, please refer to Lessard-Clouston (1996). What became obvious
both to me and my students in that attempt at LLS training was that
vocabulary learning is a very individualised activity which requires a
variety of VLS for success in understanding and using English
vocabulary, whether or not one is eventually 'tested' on it. Though this
is just one example of implementing LLS training in a normal L2/FL
class, hopefully readers will be able to see how this general three step
approach to doing so may be adapted for their own classroom teaching.
3. REFLECTIONS AND QUESTIONS FOR LLS RESEARCH
Important Reflections
In my thinking on LLS I am presently
concerned about two important issues. The first, and most important,
concerns the professionalism of teachers who use LLS and LLS training in
their work. As Davis (1997, p. 6) has aptly noted, "our actions speak
louder than words", and it is therefore important for professionals who
use LLS training to also model such strategies both within their
classroom teaching and, especially in EFL contexts, in their own FL
learning. Furthermore, LLS obviously involve individuals' unique
cognitive, social, and affective learning styles and strategies. As an
educator I am interested in helping my students learn and reflect on
their learning, but I also question the tone and motivation reflected in
some of the LLS literature. Oxford (1990a), for example, seems to
describe many of my Japanese EFL students when she writes:
...many
language students (even adults)...like to be told what to do, and they
only do what is clearly essential to get a good grade -- even if they
fail to develop useful skills in the process. Attitudes and behaviours
like these make learning more difficult and must be changed, or else any
effort to train learners to rely more on themselves and use better
strategies is bound to fail. (Oxford, 1990a, p. 10)
Motivation is a key concern both for teachers and students. Yet while
teachers hope to motivate our students and enhance their learning,
professionally we must be very clear not to manipulate them in the
process, recognising that ultimately learning is the student's
responsibility4. If our teaching is appropriate and learner-centred, we
will not manipulate our students as we encourage them to develop and use
their own LLS. Instead we will take learners' motivations and learning
styles into account as we teach in order for them to improve their L2/FL
skills and LLS.The second reflection pertains to the integration of
LLS into both language learning/teaching theory and curriculum. The
focus of this article is largely practical, noting why LLS are useful
and how they can or might be included in regular L2/FL classes. These
things are important. However, in reflecting on these issues and
attempting to implement LLS training in my classes I am reminded that
much of the L2/FL work in LLS appears to lack an undergirding theory,
perhaps partially because L2/FL education is a relatively young
discipline and lacks a comprehensive theory of acquisition and
instruction itself. As Ellis (1994) notes, much of the research on LLS
"has been based on the assumption that there are 'good' learning
strategies. But this is questionable" (p. 558). As my own research
(Lessard-Clouston, 1996, 1998) suggests, L2/FL learning seems to be very
much influenced by numerous individual factors, and to date it is
difficult to account for all individual LLS, let alone relate them to
all L2/FL learning/teaching theories.
The related challenge, then,
is how to integrate LLS into our L2/FL curriculum, especially in places
like Japan where "learner-centred" approaches or materials may not be
implemented very easily. Using texts which incorporate LLS training,
such as those in the Tapestry series, remains difficult in FL contexts
when they are mainly oriented to L2 ones. How then may FL educators best
include LLS and LLS training in the FL curriculum of their regular,
everyday language (as opposed to content) classes? This final point
brings us to this and other questions for future LLS research.
Questions for LLS Research
Following from these reflections,
then, future L2/FL research must consider and include curriculum
development and materials for LLS training which takes into account
regular L2/FL classes (especially for adults) and the learning styles
and motivations of the students within them. While Chamot and O'Malley
(1994, 1996) and Kidd and Marquardson (1996) have developed materials
for content-based school classes, it is important to consider the
development and use of materials for college and university language
classes, especially in FL settings. On the surface at least, it would
appear that the language/content/learning strategies components of their
frameworks could be easily transferred to a variety of language
classroom curricula, but is this really the case? One model to consider
in attempting to do so is Stern's (1992) multidimensional curriculum,
which allows for the integration of LLS and LLS training into its
language, culture, communicative, and general language education
syllabuses.A pressing need for further research involves developing a
comprehensive theory of LLS that is also relevant to language teaching
practice. Moving beyond taxonomies of LLS, various types of studies into
LLS use and training must consider a wide range of questions, such as:
What types of LLS appear to work best with what learners in which
contexts? Does LLS or LLS training transfer easily between L2 and FL
contexts? What is the role of language proficiency in LLS use and
training? How long does it take to train specific learners in certain
LLS? How can one best assesss and measure success in LLS use or
training? Are certain LLS learnt more easily in classroom or
non-classroom contexts? What LLS should be taught at different
proficiency levels? Answers to these and many other questions from
research in a variety of settings will aid in the theory building that
appears necessary for more LLS work to be relevant to current L2/FL
teaching practice.
In considering the above questions concerning
LLS and LLS training, a variety of research methods should be employed.
To date much of the LLS research appears to be based in North America
and is largely oriented towards quantitative data and descriptions. In
fact, one report on more qualitatively-oriented LLS data by LoCastro
(1994) sparked an interesting response from major LLS figures Oxford and
Green (1995). While calling for collaborative research in their
critique, Oxford and Green's (1995) comments in many ways discourage
such work, especially for those who do not work within North America or
use a quantitatively oriented research approach. However, as LoCastro
points out in her response,
...there are different kinds
of research which produce different results which may be of interest.
Research dealing with human beings is notoriously fuzzy and shows a
great deal of variation. (LoCastro, 1995, p. 174).
I would
concur with this observation. In listing the above questions and calling
for more research on LLS, I also hope that more case studies,
longitudinal studies, and learner's self-directed qualitative studies,
like the one by Yu (1990), will be carried out and will receive greater
attention in the literature in L2/FL education.
4. HELPFUL LLS CONTACTS AND INTERNET SITES
As
readers may want to take up my challenge and address the issues and
questions for research I have outlined here, in this final section I
focus on where they may find additional information and resources to
help them in their LLS teaching and research. In addition to checking
the sources listed in the reference section at the end of this article,
there are a number of contacts which readers may find useful for
obtaining more information on LLS, LLS training and/or research, and in
networking with others involved with or interested in LLS within various
aspects of L2/FL education. Three such contacts are noted here.
Where Can I Get More Information?
1. The Japan Association
for Language Teaching (JALT) Learner Development National Special
Interest Group (N-SIG), formed in 1994, encourages learner development
and autonomy, which involves and encompasses LLS. It publishes a
quarterly, bilingual (English-Japanese) newsletter called Learning
Learning and organises presentations at the annual JALT conference each
autumn. For more information one can access the Learner Development
N-SIG homepage or contact the co-ordinator:
http://www.ipcs.shizuoka.ac.jp/~eanaoki/LD/homeE.html
Dr. Jill Robbins
Doshisha Women's College
English Department
Tanabe-co, Tsuzuki-gun
Kyoto-fu 610-03 JAPAN
Email: robbins@gol.com
2. The International Association of Teachers of English as a Foreign
Language (IATEFL) Learner Independence Special Interest Group (SIG) has
an international network of members who are interested in learning
styles and LLS, learning centres, and related topics. In addition to
publishing a newsletter, Independence, it occasionally holds related
events. For more information either visit the Learner Independence SIG
home page or contact the co-ordinator, Jenny Timmer, through email to
IATEFL at: <113017.205@compuserve.com>.
http://www.man.ac.uk/IATEFL/lisig/lihome.htm
3.
The Center for Advanced Research on Language Acquisition (CARLA) at the
University of Minnesota publishes a newsletter, The NESSLA Report (the
Network of Styles and Strategies in Language Acquisition) and maintains a
Second Language Learning Strategies website. In order to subscribe to
the newsletter, contact CARLA as follows:
http://carla.acad.umn.edu/slstrategies.html
CARLA
Suite 111, UTEC Building
1313 5th St. S.E.,
Minneapolis, MN
5514 U.S.A.
Email: carla@tc.umn.edu
The area of LLS is a major but quickly developing aspect of L2/FL
education, and interested teachers and researchers are advised to check
the internet sites listed here for the most up-to- date information on
this topic. In accessing these WWW pages one will also find links to
related sites and organisations5.
Conclusion
This paper has provided a brief overview of LLS
by examining their background and summarising the relevant literature.
It has also outlined some ways that LLS training has been used and
offered a three step approach for teachers to consider in implementing
it within their own L2/FL classes. It has also raised two important
issues, posed questions for further LLS research, and noted a number of
contacts that readers may use in networking on LLS in L2/FL education.
In my experience, using LLS and LLS training in the L2/FL class not only
encourages learners in their language learning but also helps teachers
reflect on and improve their teaching. May readers also find this to be
the case.
Acknowledgements
I would like to thank my students for their
input on LLS and LLS training, and Birgit Harley and Wendy
Lessard-Clouston for their input on the issues presented in this
overview and for their helpful comments on earlier drafts.
Notes
1. The Author: Michael Lessard-Clouston is Associate
Professor of English, School of Economics, Kwansei Gakuin University,
1-1-155 Uega
